Foundations of Health

This section outlines key resources used during the exploration of the foundations of health within the Canadian health care system.

Foundations of Health: Text

Inter-professional Connectedness

British Columbia College of Nurses and Midwives. (2021). Scope of practice: Part 1: The basics for scope of practice: What the regulation covers. https://www.bccnm.ca/RN/ScopePractice/part1/Pages/regulation.aspx

This webpage discusses the regulation of nurses through the British Columbia College of Nurses.

Goodolf, D. M., & Godfrey, N. (2021). A think tank in action: Building new knowledge about professional identity nursing. Journal of Professional Nursing, 37(2), 493–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2020.10.007

This article uses a think tank methodology to develop a definition of the professional identity of nursing.

Ventola, C. L. (2014). Social media and health care professionals: Benefits, risks, and best practices. P & T: A Peer-Reviewed Journal for Formulary Management, 39(7), 491–520.

This article examines the role of social media in relation to professionalism. It discusses the benefits as well as the drawbacks of engaging in social media.

Federal and Provincial Health Systems in Canada

Canada Health Act, Revised Statutes of Canada § c. C-6 (1985). https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/C-6.pdf

This act discusses and defines what health care in Canada entails.

Health Professions Act, Revised Statues of British Columbia chapter 183 (1996). https://www.bclaws.gov.bc.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/00_96183_01

This Act discusses the designated health professions in British Columbia.

Health Canada. (2021). Canada Health Act: Annual report 2019-2020. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/health-system-services/canada-health-act-annual-report-2019-2020.html#c3.10

This report reviews that Canada Health Act for the years 2019-2020. Each province is discussed individually to understand what health services are available and provided in each province to those who are eligible.

Understanding Health and the Determinants of Health

Bethune, R., Absher, N., Obiagwu, M., Qarmout, T., Steeves, M., Yaghoubi, M., Tikoo, R., Szafron, M., Dell, C., & Farag, M. (2019). Social determinants of self-reported health for Canada's indigenous peoples: A public health approach. Public Health, 176, 172-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2018.03.007

This journal article uses data collected from the Statistics Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples Survey 2012, to examine the social determinants of health of First Nations and Métis peoples in Canada.

Card, A. J. (2017). Moving beyond the WHO definition of health: A new perspective for an aging world and the emerging era of value-based care. World Medicine & Health Policy, 9(1), 127-137. https://doi.org/10.1002/wmh3.221

This article examines the definition of health as defined by the WHO in 1946. A new definition has yet to be created. Card proposes a new definition of health which is more inclusive than the definition provided by the WHO.

Clifford, B., Wilson, A., & Harris, P. (2019). Homelessness, health and the policy process: A literature review. Health Policy, 123(11), 1125-1132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2019.08.011

This literary review examines six peer-reviewed articles on homelessness policy change from 1986-2018 in Australia, Canada, France and the United States. It views the importance of the social determinants of health when creating appropriate policies.

Constitution of the World Health Organization. (1946). Public Health Reports (1896-1970), 61(35), 1268-1277. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4585812

This journal, albeit over 70 years old, definiens the current definition of health. The definition of health, as defined in this article, has yet to be redefined.

Government of British Columbia. (2021, January). B.C. social determinants of health standards. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/health-professional-resources/health-information-standards/standards-catalogue/bc-social-determinants-of-health-standards

This webpage discusses what the government of British Columbia identifies as the social determinants of health. The social determinants of health help health providers and the healthcare system to identify negative impacts on health.

Government of Canada. (2020, October 7). Social determinants of health and health inequalities. http://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/health-promotion/population-health/what-determins-health.html

This webpage identifies what the government of Canada views to be determinants and social determinants of health. It also discusses health inequities and health inequalities in Canada.

Kerman, N., Manoni-Millar, S., Cormier, L., Cahill, T., & Sylvestre, J. (2020). "Its not just injecting drugs": Supervised consumption sites and the social determinants of health. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108078

This qualitative study interviewed 21 people at supervised injection sites to determine inequities in the social determinants of health by those who inject drugs. The study also notes that supervised injection sites can also act as a source for at risk people to connect with the healthcare system.

Leonardi, F. (2018). The definition of health: Towards new perspectives. International Journal of Health Services, 48(4), 735-748. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0020731418782653

This article examines the definition of health as defined by the World Health Organization. He purposes an idea that a new definition needs to have nine characteristics which he lists.

Witt, C. M., Chiaramonte, D., Berman, S., Chesney, M. A., Kaplan, G. A., Strange, K. C., Woolf, S. H., Berman, B. M. (2017). Defining health in a comprehensive context: A new definition of integrative health. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 53(1), 134-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2016.11.029

This article examines the definition of health as defined by the World Health Organization. The definition of health is further examined while the term integrative health is introduced as a new definition of health.

World Health Organization. (n.d.). Social determinants of heath. https://who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health#tab=tab_1

This webpage provides a list of what the WHO consider to be social determinants of health.

Multilevel Approaches to Understanding Disease

Anand, S. S., Yusuf, S., Jacobs, R., Davis, A. D., Qilong Yi, Gerstein, H., Montague, P. A., & Lonn, E. (2001). Risk factors, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease among Aboriginal people in Canada: The study of health assessment and risk evaluation in Aboriginal peoples (SHARE-AP). LANCET, 358(9288), 1147-1153. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06255-9

This journal article includes a randomized study of 301 Aboriginal people from the Six Nations Reservation and 326 people of European decent from three major Canadian cities. The information gathered assessed the prevalence of risk factors, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease in the population.

British Columbia Ministry of Health. (2007). Primary health care charter: A collaborative approach. https://www.health.gov.bc.ca/library/publications/year/2007/phc_charter.pdf

This charter was created to establish effective primary care in British Columbia. It includes directions that would allow strategic planning to create change in the health care system.

Cueva, K., Lovato, V., Carroll, D., Richards, J., Speakman, K., Neault, N., & Barlow, A. (2020). A qualitative evaluation of a community based, culturally relevant intervention to promote healthy food access in American Indian Communities. Journal of Community Health, 45(3), 458-464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-019-00760-4

This journal article assesses the impact of a program that was implemented in three rural Indigenous communities in the Unites States. The program was created to provide health affordable food. The project utilized community based participatory research and a social ecological model of health.

First Nations Health Authority. (n.d.). Respecting tobacco. https://www.fnha.ca/wellness/wellness-and-the-first-nations-health-authority/wellness-streams/respecting-tobacco

This webpage discusses the appropriate use of tobacco from a first nations perspective. It is useful for healthcare professionals to help creating change at both individual and community levels.

First Nations Health Authority. (2014). Healthy food guidelines for First Nations communities. https://www.fnha.ca/WellnessSite/WellnessDocuments/Healthy_Food_Guidelines_for_First_Nations_Communities.pdf#search=heart%20disease

This document was created in partnership with the First Nations Health Authority, community members, and health professionals. It can be used a resource for First Nations community members as well as by healthcare professionals when working with Frist Nations people.

Government of Canada. (2019). The government of Canada invests to expand sport and physical activity programming in Indigenous communities. https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/news/2019/05/the-government-of-canada-invests-to-expand-sport-and-physical-activity-programming-in-indigenous-communities.html

This news release discusses funding announced by the government of Canada to encourage Indigenous sport initiatives across Canada.

Indigenous Services Canada. (2018). Preventing and managing chronic disease in first nations communities: A guidance framework. https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.840823/publication.html

This webpage gives access to an electronic document that provides a framework on the prevention and management of chronic disease with First Nations communities. The Expanded Chronic Care Model is discussed.

Island Health. (2015). Setting the table. https://www.fnha.ca/WellnessSite/WellnessDocuments/VIHA-Setting-The-Table.pdf

This document reflects the views on sugar beverages as seen by the South Vancouver Island Elders. It represents a voice on how to create change.

Leclerc, A.-M., Basque, A., Miquelon, P., & Rivard M.-C. (2019). Cardiovascular disease prevention: A scoping review of healthy eating and physical activity among Indigenous peoples in Canada. Canadian Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 29(2), 26-37.

This scoping review examined 30 studies assessing the dietary and physical activity of Indigenous people. The objective was to collect information about the dietary and physical behaviours of Indigenous people from 2007-2017.

National Cancer Institute. (2005). Theory at a glance: A guide for health promotion practice. (2nd ed.). National Institute of Health. http://www.sbccimplementationkits.org/demandrmnch/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Theory-at-a-Glance-A-Guide-For-Health-Promotion-Practice.pdf

This document acts as a guide to understand theories used in health promotion.

Rural Health Information Hub. (2015, May 4). Ecological models. https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/health-promotion/2/theories-and-models/ecological

This website provides information on several different models of health, including the ecological model of health.

Chronic Disease Prevention and Management

BC Chronic Disease Registry. (2021). BC community health data. http://communityhealth.phsa.ca/GetTheData/SearchByTopic

This search engine provides data regarding chronic disease and other health topics in British Columbia. Searches can be narrowed to provincial, health authority, delivery are a, or local health areas of interest.

British Columbia Ministry of Healthy Living and Sport. (2010). Model core program paper: Chronic disease. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/health/about-bc-s-health-care-system/public-health/healthy-living-and-healthy-communities/chronic_disease-model_core_program_paper.pdf

This paper discusses the necessary components that should be included in the prevention of chronic disease in British Columbia. It discusses the breakdown of roles and responsibilities as well as foundational concepts pertaining to chronic disease prevention. Of note, it discuses specific populations that special attention should be made to.

British Columbia Ministry of Health. (2007). Primary health care charter: A collaborative approach. https://www.health.gov.bc.ca/library/publications/year/2007/phc_charter.pdf

This charter was created to establish effective primary care in British Columbia. It includes directions that would allow strategic planning to create change in the health care system.

Government of Saskatchewan. (n.d.). Chronic disease management—Quality improvement program. eHealth Saskatchewan. https://www.ehealthsask.ca/services/CDM

This webpage highlights a program in Saskatchewan used for chronic disease management. Chronic diseases covered includes diabetes, coronary artery disease, heart failure, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Health Canada. (2007). Chronic disease prevention and management. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/hcs-sss/alt_formats/hpb-dgps/pdf/prim/2006-chronic-chroniques-eng.pdf

This document from Health Canada builds upon knowledge obtained from the Primary Health Care Transition Fund initiatives. It provides important information on how to further improve chronic disease prevention and management.

Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. (2020). Risk and Prevention. https://www.heartandstroke.ca/heart-disease/risk-and-prevention

This webpage provides information regarding risk factors for heart and stroke disease.

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2017). Heart disease in Canada. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/diseases-conditions/heart-disease-canada.html

This webpage provides data regarding the prevalence of heart disease in Canada.

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2020). Canadian chronic disease surveillance system. Government of Canada. https://health-infobase.canada.ca/ccdss/data-tool/Index

This graph illustrates both the incidence and prevalence of several chronic disease monitored in Canada.

Roberts, K. C., Rao, D. P., Bennett, T. L., Loukine, L., & Jayaraman G. C. (2015). Prevalence and patterns of chronic disease multimorbidity and associated determinants in Canada. Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada, 35(6), 87-94 http://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.35.6.01

This article examines the presence of chronic disease within the general population of Canada. Data was gathered from the Canadian Community Health Survey in 2011/2012 on 105, 416 Canadians.

Saskatchewan Ministry of Health. (2012). A framework for achieving a high preforming primary health care system in Saskatchewan. Publications Saskatchewan. https://publications.saskatchewan.ca/#/products/88308

This website provides a link to a framework that discusses primary care in Saskatchewan. It includes information on chronic disease prevention and management, as well information on engagement with First Nations communities.

Vulnerable Populations

British Columbia Coroners Service. (2021, June 1). Illicit drug toxicity deaths in BC: January 1, 2021-April 30, 2021. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/birth-adoption-death-marriage-and-divorce/deaths/coroners-service/statistical/illicit-drug.pdf

This resource offers information regarding illicit drug toxicity deaths in British Columbia from 2011-2021. Information was compiled buy the British Columbia Coroners Service.

First Nations Health Authority. (n.d.). Mental health and wellness support. https://www.fnha.ca/what-we-do/mental-wellness-and-substance-use

This website lists organizations that provide culturally sound mental health supports to First Nations people in British Columbia. It includes supports for former residential school students, as well as those affected by the missing and murdered Indigenous women in Canada.

Frist Nations Health Authority. (n.d.). Mental health benefits. https://www.fnha.ca/benefits/mental-health

This resource from the First Nations Health Authority discusses mental health coverage as well as programs available to First Nations people in British Columbia.

First Nations Health Authority. (2019, February 15). FNHA’s policy on mental health and wellness. https://www.fnha.ca/WellnessSite/WellnessDocuments/FNHA-Policy-on-Mental-Health-and-Wellness.pdf

This document defines mental health and wellness as viewed by the First Nations Health Authority. It provides information on the vision for First Nations health and wellness, as well as how to shift the current concept of health and wellness to align with that of First Nations.

Gallagher, J. (2019). Indigenous approaches to health and wellness leadership: A BC First Nations perspective. Healthcare Management Forum, 32(1), 5-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/0840470418788090

This article discusses Indigenous beliefs on health and wellness leadership in British Columbia.

Gallagher, J., Mendez, J. K., & Kehoe, T. (2015) The First Nations Health Authority: A transformation in healthcare for BC First Nations. Health Management Forum, 28(6), 255-261. https://doi.org/10.1177/0840470415600131

This article examines the First Nations Health Authority in British Columbia as an agent of transformative change. The First Nations Health Authority is the first of its kind in Canada which aims to improve the healthcare of First Nations people in British Columbia while creating new partnerships and decolonizing old patterns.

Government of British Columbia. (n.d.). Declaration of the rights of Indigenous Peoples act. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/indigenous-people/new-relationship/united-nations-declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples

This webpage discusses the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People. It notes that the government of British Columbia passed this act into law in 2019 as a response to the Commission of Canada Truth and Reconciliation calls to action.

MacIntosh, C. (2017). Indigenous mental health: Imagining a future where action follows obligations and promises. Alberta Law Review, 54(3), 589-610. https://0-heinonline-org.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/alblr54&div=23&collection=journals

This article discusses the mental well-being of Indigenous people in Canada. It makes mention of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People and emphasize the importance that governments follow through on their commitments with action.

Richmond, C. A. M., & Cook, C. (2016). Creating conditions for Canadian aboriginal health equity: The promise of healthy public policy. Public Health Reviews, 37(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-016-0016-5

This journal article reviews well known policies Indigenous health policies as well as the challenges to Indigenous health. The article asks health providers, governments, and academic institutes to help create change.

Tripartite First Nations Health Plan. (2013). A path forward: BC first Nations and Aboriginal People’s mental wellness and substance use—A 10 year plan. First Nations Health Authority. https://www.fnha.ca/Documents/FNHA_MWSU.pdf

This plan was made to help guide the creation of culturally sensitive policies regarding Indigenous mental health and substance use.

Turpel-Lafond, M.E. (2020, November). In plain sight: Addressing Indigenous-specific racism and discrimination in B.C. health care. Government of British Columbia. https://engage.gov.bc.ca/app/uploads/sites/613/2020/11/In-Plain-Sight-Full-Report.pdf

This report investigates racism in the British Columbia health care system. It also includes recommendations going forward.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Truth and reconciliation commission of Canada calls to action. http://trc.ca/assets/pdf/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf

This report draw attention to the affects that residential school systems have had on the health and wellness of Aboriginal people. It can help to identify health inequities which in turn can be useful in the creation of new policies.

United Nations. (2007). United Nations declaration on the rights of Indigenous Peoples. https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/UNDRIP_E_web.pdf

This online document details the rights of Indigenous people.

Future Directions of Health Care

First Nations Health Council. (2021). Our approach. https://fnhc.ca/our-approach/

This webpage discusses the governing structures for First Nations Health in British Columbia.

Government of Canada. (2021, June 29). Implementing the United Nations declaration on the rights of Indigenous Peoples in Canada. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/declaration/index.html

This webpage emphasizes the importance of the government of Canada passing Bill C-15 which makes the United Nations Declaration on the rights of Indigenous Peoples law.

Romanow, R. J. (2002). Building on values: The future of health care in Canada. Commission on the Future of the Health Care in Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/CP32-85-2002E.pdf

This report reviewed the Canadian health care system and provided recommendations on areas to improve.

Wilmot, S. (2018). Cultural rights and First Nations health care in Canada. Health and Human Rights Journal (20)1. 283-293.

This journal article explores the rights of Indigenous people to have culturally appropriate health care in Canada.